الفهرس 
introduction and aim of The workOnly 14 pages are availabe for public view
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Abstract
The Femur is the largest and heaviest bone in human body. It consists of a superior or proximal end, a shaft and an inferior or distal end. The upper or proximal extremity contains the head, neck, two trochanters and adjacent structures. The head of femur, which articulates with the acetabulum of pelvic bone, composes two thirds of a sphere. It has a small groove or fovea, connected through the round ligament to sides of acetabular notch .The head of the femur is connected to the shaft through the neck or collum. The neck is 4-5 cm long and the diameter is smallest front to back and compressed at its middle. The collum forms an angle with the shaft in about 130 degrees. This angle is variant in the infant; it is about 150 degrees and in old age reduced to 120 degrees on average.
Identity is whatever makes an entity definable and recognizable, in terms of possessing a set of qualities or characteristics that distinguish it from entities of a different type. “Identification,” therefore, is the act of establishing that identity
Identification is a multidisciplinary process in which a variety of different types of evidence are used to create a picture of an individual. In ideal circumstances, the picture should be so detailed and descriptive that the person concerned would be recognizable to someone else .
Identity of the dead is an essential part of post mortem examination for various reasons. Ethical humination need to know which individual has died, to establish the fact of death, to record the identity for administrative and ceremonial, statistical and legal purposes, to prove claims for life insurance contracts and other financial matters, to allow legal investigation and to facilitate police enquiries into overtly criminal or suspicious.
The objective of identification is to find out whose human remains are under investigation and can be divided into general and specific identification. Some of identity facts have no medical content, including fingerprints and personal property. In general identification of human remains are assigned into a few general categories such as species ,race ,sex ,stature and age of human remains but still it doesn’t produce definite identification of the individual. This phase is said to be based on ‘absolute’ criteria. They are called absolute because examiner does not need any information about ante mortem data of a missing person to do this.
The specific identification which is often done after the general identification ,at the end of this phase the examiner should be able to identify the remains as belong to a particular individual this is basically a comparative study matching of the antemortem data of a missing person with those of the remains under investigation .for example, a surgical prosthesis present in the remains is a good individualizing feature of identification only if there is a missing person who had exactly the similar prosthesis implanted before.
Examples of specific identification features are facial identification, clothes, ornaments, scars, marks, tattoos, occupational stigmata, bone diseases, trauma, photo superimposition, facial reconstruction, DNA, fingerprints and dental identification. Sex is the first demographic factor that is determined because it reduces the number of possible matches by 50 %.Determination of sex in non skeletonized bodies usually obvious and rarely presents problems.The issue of intersex and hermaphrodism is as rare as to be discounted in most forensic practice, except in some areas, such as South,East Asia,where deliberate trans sexulismin men aided by surgical intervention to feminize the genitalia and breast occurs more frequently where the problem arises,expert advice must be sought.
To determine sex in non-skeletonized human remains, most of the time the external genitalia and secondary sexual characteristics would help to determine the sex, circumcision may indicate the race and religion of the person, clothing and jewelries may also help to determine the sex.
The successful macroscopic identification of human bone will depend heavily not only on the experience of the forensic osteologist but also on which elements of the skeleton are present. Small, relatively featureless sections from the shafts of long bones or fragments of rib are difficult to distinguish from animal remains, particularly those of pig or sheep. Understandably, animals that are significantly smaller or indeed larger than a human being are often more readily differentiated.
Hipbone is considered as an ideal bone for sex determination as it provides the highest accuracy levels for sex determination. Hence, the hip is considered the most reliable sex indicator in human skeleton.
For many years, the principal role of radiography has been to aid in the determination of identity when conventional methods such as fingerprinting or DNA analysis are not available or cannot be utilized; to assist in the evaluation of injury, namely bone injury in blunt and ballistic injury; and to localize metallic fragments and foreign bodies. Adding MDCT to forensic autopsy expands the role of radiology in forensic autopsy, allowing the radiologist or forensic pathologist to view anatomy without dissection. The multi-planar and three-dimensional capability makes the anatomic display of the MDCT similar to that of autopsy.
Technological advances in the last decade led to revolutionary changes in cross-sectional imaging. Developments in multi-detector computed tomography (MDCT) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) technology transformed the collection and display of image data. The image resolution of MDCT and MRI scans increased as the acquisition times decreased. Computer workstations and multi-planar two- and three-dimensional software enable radiologists to view and interpret images in ways that were not previously possible. Because of these technological advances, cross-sectional imaging fundamentally changed the practice of clinical medicine such that noninvasive or minimally invasive diagnostic and therapeutic techniques are commonplace.
The application of these technologies to forensic medicine is a natural extension of clinical imaging. As MDCT and MRI scanners are being incorporated into forensic facilities worldwide, the benefits and limitations of these technologies in forensic investigation are still being explored. Forensic radiography may be used to investigate accidental or non-accidental injury. The scope of forensic radiography does not end with these types of investigations. Forensic professionals often relay on imaging, increasingly CT, to help identify remains at local medical examiner offices or at the scenes or at the scenes of mass casualties. Radiographic evidence may be used in civil and criminal court cases ranging from fraud to assault. In all legal uses of radiologic imaging, the image must be of a quality high enough for admission as credible evidence. The person who performs the examination must accurately mark and notate the image for radiologist and other health science professionals and expert witnesses who will interpret the image.
MRI has superior contrast resolution compared to MDCT. Consequently, it is a useful technique to image soft tissue alterations and pathologic processes. Postmortem MRI has been used to assess soft tissue and visceral hemorrhage, ischemia, and tumors.
Our study involved 200 living Egyptian persons (100 males and 100 females) submitted to spiral-computed tomography of the proximal epiphysis of the femur un-fractured and non-pathologic. This study has been carried out at C.T unit Giza international hospital, radiology department. Six landmarks (A–F) were selected in the radiograph and distances were generated representing possible combinations of these landmarks. Then the generated distances were calculated (computer-based). The selected landmarks are described as follows:
• Point (A): On the shaft under the lower end of the lesser trochanter.
• Point (B): On the shaft so that the distance A–B (representing the sub-trochanteric diameter in the radiograph) is perpendicular to the axis of the shaft.
• Points (C and D): selected on the femoral neck where the curvature changes forming the head so that the distance from C to D is the minimum neck diameter.
• Points (E and F): on the femoral head, so that the distance E–F is the maximum femoral diameter parallel to C–D.
Statistical analysis of each of the fifteen variables including mean and standard deviation were calculated. As a result, standard parameters (including mean and standard deviation) for sex identification using Spiral computed tomography of femoral head among a known cross-section of studied population were obtained for each of the fifteen variables for both males & females.
We found that AB,AC,CD,CE and EF distances were significant in differentiating sex ,also we found that AC,CD,CE and EF are highly significant.
In our study we found that the mean of seven distances AB,BE,BF,CD,CE,DE and DF were larger in males than females and they were larger in females than males in seven distances AC,AD,AE,AF,BC,BD and CF and was equal in one distance EF in both males and females. In addition, we found that by logistic analysis
Sex = 8.521 + 3.94(AC) – 2.12(AD) – 2.72(CD) – 4.04(CE) + 1.91(DF) – 1.79(EF)
If result of equation positive the case is male and if the result is negative, the case is female.
By applying this equation to the cases in our study, which previously sex known there were 86 single division has been determined right at a rate of 86% among those who were 100 cases males. Also there were 82 single division has been divided right at a rate of 82% among those who were 100 cases females, As it is clear that single number 168 has been divided properly at a rate of 84% out of the sample size, which amount to 200 cases. This percentage of classification from the bone agreed with previous studies done to differentiate sex from femur bone and disagreed with anther studies done before to differentiate sex from femur bone.