الفهرس 
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Abstract
Egypt is about one million square kilometer, with its cultivated lands being concentrated around the river Nile valley occupying about 4 % of the whole area with the desert land occupying the rest of Egypt. Mainly because of the scarcity of water, arable land in Egypt was always limited. On the other hand, agricultural production in Egypt is limited by urban encroachment and soil degradation. The excessive population growth and the lack of food security were the guide to expand and extend horizontally the cultivated land. The desert lands in Egypt have much cultivable land for agriculture horizontal expansion.
EL Minia governorate area is one of the most important developmental areas which drawn considerable attention of Egyptian government in the last few decades. The soil and water resources of this area cover the requirements of reclamation projects and implementation of new communities.
The study area lies in El- Minia Governorate, Egypt. It is located between latitudes 28° 00 to 28° 30 North, and longitudes 30° 30’ to 30° 50’ East. It occupies 1503.50 km2 (357976.78 fed.). It is geographically bounded by the Western Desert and the Nile Basin.
The agricultural land represents 899.23 km2 (214103.8 fed.), meanwhile the urban areas occupy 122.91 km2 (29264.3 fed.). Contour lines of the study area are ranging between -26 m for very few depressions and 153 m for the highest mapping units. The area has gently sloping towards east and north, with few exceptions.
The present study aims to using remote sensing and geographic information system technologies in identification of land and water resources of EL Minia area using Multi- and Hyperspectral Images in order to help the planners and the decision makers to organize the environmental data, and understanding their spatial association. The present work also aims at identification of land and water resources of EL Minia area using Multi- and Hyperspectral images .And determination urbanization, sand dunes encroachment and agriculture during the period from 1990 to 2016. And identification of land evaluation (capability) in study area .and determining the developmental potentiality in terms of soil and water is necessary for setting up a management scheme to optimize the use of natural resources of this vital area. identification of land and water resources according to definite economic criteria, e.g., soil texture, soil depth, EC, CEC,ESP, O.M, N P K ,water salinity , SAR of water and also determined.
The general objectives of the present study aimed:
1- To define geomorphological units.
2- To identify urbanization, sand dunes encroachment on agricultural land.
3- To define soil mapping and classification units.
4- To recognize water resources assessing its salinity and alkalinity hazards.
5- To determine land evaluation (Capability).
To achieve the aim of this study:
Satellite images
The raw data of four types of satellite images were obtained as follows:
The Thematic Mapper (TM) image, Enhanced Thematic Mapper plus (ETM+) image, Landsat 8 and Hyperspectral images. First: Image enhancement which are; (i) Contrast stretching (ii) Histogram matching (iii) Atmospheric correction. Second: a) image post processing of multi spectral: (i) Image mosaicking (ii) Data merge (iii) Production of Land use/land cover maps (Digital Image Classification- Post classification change detection.
b) Image post processing of hyperspectral (i) Minimum Noise Fraction (ii) Determining data dimensionality (iii) Pixel Purity Index (iv) N-Dimensional Visualizer( v) Mapping methods(The Spectral Angle Mapper (SAM)- Mixture-Tuned Matched Filtering (MTMF)- Linear Spectral Unmixing).
Supervised classification technique besides the post classification change detection process was implemented to reveal the change in some landuse/landcover classes along 26 years period. This technique was useful in monitoring urban, agriculture, sand dunes, barren areas and defining the factors contributed to the formation of such phenomenon. Three landuse/landcover maps in 1990, 2003 and 2016 were produced using the support vector machine method. Four landuse/landcover classes had been identified urban, sand dunes, agriculture and barren areas. The results showed a regular behavior characterizing the change in these classes. A continuous increase in urban areas, and increase in the areas of agriculture along the 26 years period from 1990 to 2016.
But, the sand dunes didn’t show the same behavior as its change decrease the apparent decrease of the area covered by sand could be explained by a corresponding increase of the area covered by agriculture new farms and/or urban area. This result indicated that the sand dunes were active and shifted from one place to another due to the direction of the prevailing wind exposing underline sand that used as a soil in new farms. Digital Elevation Model was generated using geostatistical interpolation in ArcGIS 10.1. Preprocessing was performed on the resulted DEM and its accuracy was assessed, then it was used to generate other terrain attributes and slope All of these attributes were overlaid using cell statistics tool in ArcGIS 10.1.The cell statistics image could separate the main landscapes in the study area .After that, the resulted cell statistics image plus landsat8 image were both dragged on the DEM in order to generate an 3D view for the study area based on field observations, photographs and some previous studies landforms in each separated landscape. Finally, geomorphological map was produced for the study area.
Geomorphological unites of EL Minia:
Geomorphologic features could be identified throughout interpreting satellite image and DEM which are considered the most common, versatile and economical forms of advanced techniques. The basic advantages of satellite image afford the reality to the ground observation.
The geomorphic units were recognized and delineated by analyzing the main landscape that extracted from the satellite image with the aid of the DEM and field survey. The obtained results included eight main landscapes
1-The Nile valley
1.1. (Levee)
1.2. (River meandering belt)
1.3. (High Recent River terraces -Mod. Recent river terraces -Low Recent river terraces)
1.4. (- High overflow basins- Mod. overflow basins- Low overflow basins)
1.5. (-High decantation basins - Mod. decantation basins -Low decantation basins)
1.6 - (- High old river terraces - Mod. old river terraces – Mod. low old river terraces -Low old river terraces).
2- Peniplain 3- Outwash plains & Alluvial fans, 4- Shoulders 5- Pediments 6- Dry wadis 7- Rock outcrops 8- Sand dunes.
1- The Nile valley:
Nile valley consists of
1.1. Levee: this subunit occupies 8.81 km2 representing 0.59 % of the total area.
1.2. River meandering belt: this subunit occupies 25.21 km2 representing 1.68 % of the total area.
1.3. Recent river terraces: this subunit occupies 221.32 km2 representing 14.72 % of the total area.
1.4. Overflow basins: this subunit occupies 239.68 km2 representing 15.95 % of the total area.
1.5. Decantation basins: this subunit occupies 267.36 km2 representing 17.79 % of the total area.
1.6. Old river terraces: this subunit occupies 355.02 km2 representing 23.61 % of the total area.
2- Peniplain:
The formation of such peneplains is as a result of eroding the upper parts of the surface and then the hard rocks generally appear above it. It’s representing total area of 88.74 km2 (5.92 % of the total study area).
3- Outwash plains & Alluvial fans:
This unit occupy 48.01 km2 representing 3.19 % of the total area.
4- Shoulders:
This landform could be subdivided into three subunits i.e. upper shoulders, middle shoulders, and lower shoulders, representing total area of 88.76 km2 (5.89 % of the total study area). 5- Pediments:
This unit occupy 34.91 km2 representing 2.32 % of the total area.
6- Dry wadis:
Dry wadis soils may be developed on many kinds of permeable rock, such as limestone and chalk, or sandy terrains that do not regularly sustain surface water because it sinks into the permeable bedrocks. This unit occupy 3.09 km2 representing 0.21 % of the total area.
7- Rock outcrops:
This unit occupy 19.73 km2 representing 1.31 % of the total area.
8- Sand dunes:
Barchans is isolated crescent shaped mobile dune. These units occupy 102.84 km2 representing 6.99 % of the total area.
Soils of EL Minia area:
After geomorphology units consisting each landscape were defined, each unit was represented by one soil profiles. The field work included three main tasks Twenty (20) soil profiles were dug and soil samples were collected from each horizon after the whole profiles were morphologically descried according to FAO (2006) and Soil Manual Survey (1993). Fifteen surface and ground water samples that represent surface water resources and the ground water in the study area were collected in order to evaluate its suitability for irrigation purposes.
Several laboratory analyses for soil samples had been performed in order to identify the physical and chemical properties characterize soils of each landscape in the study area.
Soil of Nile valley:
Texture class is sand to clay fraction forming. CaCO3 ranges between
.61 % to 15.17 %. Gypsum content is very few ranging between 0.0 to 4.97 %. OM content in these soils varies from 0.00 to 2.12 % decreasing regularly with depth. EC is moderate ranging between 0.13 and 4.38 ds/m. pH values recorded 7.66 increased to 8.68 in the different layers.
Soil of Peniplain:
Texture class in this unit is loamy sand fraction forming. CaCO3 ranges between 16.21 to 43.46 %. Gypsum content is very few ranging between 0.0 to 6.7 %. OM content varies from 0.02 to 0.03 % decreasing regularly with depth. EC is moderate ranging between 1.38 to 4.29 ds/m. pH values recorded 7.84 increased to 7.98 in the different layers.
Soil of Outwash plains & Alluvial fans:
Texture class in this unit is sand to loamy sand fraction forming. CaCO3 ranges between 24.28 to 66.74%. Gypsum content is very few ranging between 0.0 to 7.41%. OM content varies from 0.10 to 0.13 % decreasing regularly with depth. EC is high ranging between 1.73 to 6.54 ds/m. pH values recorded 7.65 increased to 8.16 in the different layers.
Soil of Shoulders:
Texture class in this unit is sand to loamy sand fraction forming. CaCO3 ranges between 25.59 to 38.84 %. Gypsum content is few ranging between 6.31 to 8.43%. OM content varies from 0.08 to 0.15 % decreasing regularly with depth. EC is high ranging between 6.73 to 8.17ds/m. pH values recorded 7.59 increased to 7.72 in the deepest layers Soil of Pediments:
Texture class in this unit is loamy sand fraction forming. CaCO3 ranges between 14.92 to 68.01 %.Gypsum content is very few ranging between 0.0 to 7.73 %. OM content varies from 0.05 to 0.08 % decreasing regularly with depth. EC is moderate ranging between 2.81 and 5.36ds/m. pH values recorded 7.58 increased to 7.93 in the different layers.
Soil of Dry wadis:
Texture class is sand and loamy sand fraction forming. CaCO3 ranges between 10.87 to 69.16%. Gypsum content is very few ranging between 0.0 and 6.86%. OM content in these soils varies from 0.0 to 0.07% decreasing regularly with depth. EC is moderate ranging between 0.57 to 3.31ds/m. pH values recorded 7.5 increased to 8.39in the deepest layer mapping and classification
Examinations of EL Minia soils provide the bases for placing them into taxonomic and mapping units. Each mapping unit is identified on the map by a symbol; and each must has an identifying name within the general system of soil classification. The studied soils are classified according to Soil Survey Stuff (2014) up the sub-great group level. Most of the soils are affiliated to order Entisols. Some of the soils that have diagnostic horizons (Calcic and/or Gypsic) are classified under Aridisols.
Land capability evaluation of studied soils:
A land capability evaluation of the soils of EL Minia was performed following MicroLEIS land capability model CERVATANAC .Capability procedure done through matching soil characteristics and qualities with capability limiting factors using the maximum limiting factor method. Application of the model using studied soils characteristics indicated the following land capability classes:
1- Soils have excellent capability class (S1)
The soils in capability class (S1) have the highest agricultural quality of the system, with no or very few limitations. They allow a wide range of crops without any problems for management. They have, also, excellent productivity under appropriate management, and a very good natural fertility. This class includes soils of river meandering belt, high overflow basins, moderately overflow basins and low decantation basins. The total area of the soils in this capability class is 288.73 km2 (68746.42 feddan).
2- Soils have a very good capability class (S2):
The soils in this class (S2) have a good capability and can be managed with little difficulty. This class includes soils of levee, high recent river terraces, moderately recent river terraces, low recent river terraces; low overflows basins high decantation basins, moderately decantation basins and dry wadis. The total area the soils of this capability class is 476.74 km2 (113509.45feddan). The main limitations of these soils are problems of soil properties, except for levee which have erosion risks only and soils of dry wadis which have soil problems and erosion risks. These soils require a good and proper management. Under good management, they could be become a moderately high to high productivity for fair range of crops and improved to class (S1).
3- Soils have a good capability class (S3)
The soils in this class (S3) have a moderate capability with moderately severe limitations that restrict the range of crops and require special conservation practices. This class include the soils of high old river terraces, moderately old river terraces, moderately low old river terraces, low old river terraces, peniplains, outwash plains & alluvial fans ,shoulders and pediments .The total area of these soils is 615.45 km2 (146536.64feddan). The main limitations of these soils are erosion risks except for peniplains that have also soil limitation problems. The soils of Shoulders have topography, soil limitations and erosion risks. The soils of Pediments have erosion risks, and bioclimatic deficiency. These lands are low to fair in productivity for a fair range of crops and improvement practices can be feasible.
Evaluation of irrigation water samples
Two standard methods are used to evaluate surface and ground water samples, namely Soil Salinity Laboratory Staff (1969) and Aeyers and Westcot (1994). The first method depends on Sodium Adsorption Ratio (SAR) and Salinity hazards to evaluate the suitability of water for irrigation purpose. The second use Electrical conductivity (EC), SAR, Chloride and pH for evaluation.
According to the first method, all studied water samples had law alkalinity (S1). The surface water samples have almost moderate to high salinity. Few samples collected from Atsa canal that received sewage water was extremely saline.
According to the second method, all surface samples were within the normal limits of salinity, sodicity and chloride except the Atsa canal. The ground water samples were also in normal to moderate limits in salinity, sodicity and chloride except one sample with serious hazard.