الفهرس 
HISTORY OF HYPNOSISOnly 14 pages are availabe for public view
 |  | from | 16 |  |  |
| | | from | 16 | | |
Abstract
O
ur use of the term hypnosis has its origin in the work of the 19th century British physician James Braid (1843). However, the phenomenon to which it refers had been well known for at least a half-century earlier under the names animal magnetism or mesmerism. Later scholars adopted an altered state perspective and described ancient healing rituals practiced in Eastern and Western civilizations as precursors of modern hypnosis.
There are tow scholars that are said to be responsible for the fall of hypnosis from prominence at the turn of the 19th century. The first one is Bernheim by publication of his first critique of charcot’s work and his rejection of the Grande Hypnotisme practiced at the Salpêtrière. The second one is Freud who has initially made hypnosis a central aspect of his clinical technique. Freud soon rejected hypnosis as a technique in favor of his own psychotherapeutic techniques, particularly free association.
The successful therapeutic application of hypnosis by military physicians and psychotherapists during the two World Wars is one of the two most significant factors in the resurgence of interest in clinical hypnosis within the professional mainstream in the second half of the twentieth century. The other is the psychotherapeutic work of Milton Erickson (1902–1980) and his followers, whose innovations in the clinical practice of hypnosis would help to restore its popular fascination.
Like many psychological phenomena, intelligence, depression and anxiety, hypnosis is defined according to the subjective experience and report of participants and by the phenomena that accompany the ’hypnotic state.’ The characteristics of this state include a redistribution of attention to an inward focus, a reduction of critical judgment and reality testing, a suspension of forward planning, increased suggestibility, heightened imagery or involvement in fantasy, and hypnotic role behaviour.
Although the definition of hypnosis has proven to be a controversial issue in general, Clinicians and researchers of diverse theoretical orientations have agreed on the description of hypnosis, which has been officially adopted by Division 30 (Society of Psychological Hypnosis) of the American Psychological Association (APA).
There are four main theories that tried to explain the broad range of responses associated with hypnosis; The Psychoanalytic theories, The Neodissociation theories, The Sociocognitive theories, and The Phenomenological Interactive theories. The theories of hypnosis that have been developed over the years are each useful in their own way for describing one or more aspects of hypnosis, but none can be considered the final word in describing the process or experience of hypnosis.
The complex issue of who can be hypnotized has been researched and written about at great length by some of the most respected people in the field. The net result is the conclusion that although the great majority of people can experience hypnosis to some degree, not everyone is equally responsive to hypnosis.
Research subjects exposed to standardized and different forms of hypnotic induction and offered standardized and differing suggestions show variable levels of responsiveness across conditions.
Thus, many experts conclude that hypnotizability, generally defined in the research as an ability to respond positively to suggested experiences, is substantially more about personal factors than interpersonal or contextual ones.
Personality factors showed no specific correlations with hypnotizability, while imaginative capacity could be the best predictor of hypnotizability. Other factors include; the capacity to become absorbed in an experience, expectancy, age, self-esteem, and mental status.
Women are more hypnotizable than men, but this difference is much too small to be of practical importance or to indicate something that would be theoretically important. The available evidence suggests that responsiveness to hypnosis emerges at a low level around age 5, rises sharply to a peak responsiveness around ages 7 to 9, begins a gradual decline in early adolescence, and stays fairly level throughout adulthood.
Hypnosis is a tool, not a therapeutic model, and has been used to facilitate a range of different therapeutic approaches. It might be used to reduce or eliminate symptoms. Hypnosis might be used to explore or understand one’s history or dynamics. It might be used as a tool to teach self-control or self-regulation. Along that line, hypnosis might be used to enhance or strengthen one’s sense of confidence.
Hypnosis has been used in the treatment of many psychological and medical problems. However, it may not be useful for all psychological problems or for all patients or clients. The decision to use hypnosis as an adjunct to treatment can only be made in consultation with a qualified health care provider who has been trained in the use and limitations of clinical hypnosis.
In addition to its use in clinical settings, hypnosis is used in research, with the goal of learning more about the nature of hypnosis itself, as well as its impact on sensation, perception, learning, memory, and physiology. Researchers also study the value of hypnosis in the treatment of physical and psychological problems.
Hypnosis can be used as a tool in the treatment of almost any human condition in which a person’s attitude is a factor. Thus, even if the disease is an entirely organic one, such as a physical injury, the person’s mental resources can still be focused to help manage discomfort more easily, and perhaps even to enhance the healing process.
In physical disorders where there is no known path to recovery, hypnosis can ease the discomfort, allow some rest, encourage a positive attitude, and lessen any associated emotional trauma. Hypnosis may not facilitate a cure for an illness, but it can still help the person on a variety of levels and in meaningful ways.
By summarizing the research to date, hypnosis has shown considerable efficacy for induced analgesia, anxiety, stress related disorders, phobias, depression, children’s disorders, dissociative disorders, sexual dysfunction, eating and sleep disorders, presurgical preparation, irritable bowel syndrome, asthma, smoking cessation, reducing nausea related to chemotherapy, and enhancing the effectiveness of cognitive behavioural therapy, as well as for treating trauma